Filipino Identity III

In this particular blog, it focuses mainly on tribal groups in the Philippines. Let me start with the topic that interests me the most, which is tattoos. First of all, I don’t really care what type of tribal tattoos you have if they are based on Filipino themed designs. However, I personally find it somewhat amusing when a Filipino guy uses a fusion of tribal tattoos from Māori, mixed with Samoan and Inuit totem poles, yet proudly represents Filipino heritage. Maybe it’s because I can recognize them. I myself got my first tattoo as a moko on my arm at the age of 22. I have a little regret now and may get it covered. I would prefer a tattoo that is not from another heritage, and instead something closer to my own, such as a modern Filipino tribal tattoo like the one in this image.

I must add that moko is a Māori design and these tribes from New Zealand traditionally have it on their face. The older styles look more like they were carved into the skin rather than gently tapped in, which gives it a very intense and striking appearance, pretty hardcore stuff.

THREE REGIONS OF THE PHILIPPINES

The Republic of the Philippines is commonly divided into three main geographic regions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Luzon is the largest and northernmost region, home to the capital Manila and many of the country’s political and economic centers. The Visayas is the central island group, known for its maritime culture, festivals, and strong seafaring history among its many islands. Mindanao is the southern region, rich in cultural diversity and home to both Christian and Muslim communities as well as many indigenous groups.

Before Spanish colonization, these regions already had established societies, trade networks, and distinct cultures, long before European contact. When Ferdinand Magellan arrived in 1521, he reached parts of the Visayas, not Luzon, and his expedition was limited in scope and did not establish control. Later, Miguel López de Legazpi began the formal Spanish colonization in 1565, establishing settlements first in the Visayas and eventually expanding influence northward into Luzon. Over time, Spanish rule unified many of these diverse polities into what later became the Philippines.

OFFICIAL LANGUAGE IS TAGALOG (FILIPINO)

Tagalog, standardized as Filipino, is the national and official language of the Philippines. It is used in government, education, media, and serves as the common language between different regions.

LUZON 
Northern Luzon:

• Ilocano
• Ibanag
• Itawes
• Gaddang

Central Luzon:

• Kapampangan
• Sambal
• Bolinao
• Pangasinan (spoken in Pangasinan, a major province in western Luzon)
  

Southern Luzon and National Capital Region:

• Tagalog (dominant base of Filipino)
• Bicol languages (such as Rinconada and Albay Bicol)

VISAYAS

• Cebuano (largest spoken Visayan language)
  
• Hiligaynon (Ilonggo)
• Waray
• Kinaray-a
• Aklanon
• Capiznon
• Boholano (variant of Cebuano)

MINDANAO

• Cebuano (widely spoken in many areas)
• Maguindanaoan
• Maranao
• Tausug
• Chavacano (Spanish based creole, especially in Zamboanga)
• Surigaonon
• Butuanon
• Manobo language group (multiple indigenous languages)

In summary, the Philippines is highly multilingual, with Ilocano highlighted here as a major regional language in Luzon, while Tagalog serves as the national official language that connects all regions together. The Ilocano language is one of the major languages in Northern Luzon and is widely spoken across provinces such as Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, and parts of Cagayan Valley. It is especially strong as a regional language and is commonly used in daily life, trade, and local communication.

THE SUCCESS OF MIGUEL LÓPEZ DE LEGAZPI

Miguel López de Legazpi was more successful and “better received” in establishing Spanish influence in the Philippines than Ferdinand Magellan mainly because of timing, strategy, and diplomacy.

Magellan arrived in 1521 as part of a Spanish expedition, but he was essentially passing through and trying to claim territories quickly for Spain. His contact with local rulers was limited and often involved misunderstandings and conflict, which eventually led to his death in the Battle of Mactan. Magellan did not establish lasting control or settlements.

Legazpi, on the other hand, arrived in 1565 with a longer term mission to establish permanent colonies. Instead of relying on force alone, he often used negotiation, alliances, and agreements with local leaders. This more diplomatic approach, combined with military backing, allowed him to establish stable settlements first in the Visayas and later expand into Luzon, leading to the foundation of lasting Spanish rule.

TRIBAL AND INDIGENOUS GROUPS

LUZON

• Igorot (umbrella group in the Cordillera region)
• Kalinga (including the people of Buscalan)
• Ifugao
• Bontoc
• Ibaloi
• Kankanaey
• Gaddang
• Ibanag
• Aeta (Negrito groups in Central and Southern Luzon)

VISAYAS

• Visayan people (general cultural-linguistic group)
• Ati (Negrito group, especially in Panay)
• Tumandok (Panay indigenous group)
• Sulod-Bukidnon (mountain indigenous group in Panay)
• Magahat-Bukidnon (Negros Island indigenous group)

MINDANAO

• Lumad (umbrella term for non-Muslim indigenous groups)
• Maranao people
• Tausug people
• Maguindanao people
• Manobo groups (various subgroups across Mindanao)
• T’boli (South Cotabato)
• Bagobo (Davao region)
• Subanen (Zamboanga Peninsula)
• Mandaya and Mansaka (Davao regions)

In summary, Luzon is dominated by Cordillera and Negrito groups, Visayas by smaller island-based indigenous communities, and Mindanao by a very diverse mix of Lumad and Muslim ethnolinguistic groups, making it the most culturally diverse region of the Philippines.

TRIBAL TATTOES

As there are "TWO" main tribal tattoo traditions often highlighted, the Visayan Pintados and the Igorot Buscalan, tattoos in the Philippines were historically most common among groups like the Visayan people and the Igorot including the Kalinga people of Buscalan. These traditions carried strong cultural meanings tied to status, bravery, beauty, and identity. The Visayans were called Pintados by early Spaniards because of their heavily tattooed bodies, while Igorot groups like the Kalinga preserved their tattooing practices through generations. Tattoos were not exclusive to just these groups, as other indigenous communities also practiced them, though sometimes less documented. Today, tribal style tattoos are widely popular, but the most culturally rooted and historically prominent traditions still trace back mainly to Visayan and Igorot heritage, with Buscalan standing out because it continues to practice the tradition in its original hand tapped form.

In Mindanao, there isn’t a widely recognized tattoo tradition comparable to the Visayan Pintados or Igorot Buscalan, especially among major Muslim groups like the Maranao people, Tausug people, and Maguindanao people. This is largely because Islam, which has been deeply rooted in these cultures for centuries, generally discourages permanent tattoos, emphasizing cleanliness and the preservation of the body. As a result, instead of tattooing, artistic expression developed through other rich forms such as intricate okir designs, textiles, brasswork, and music like kulintang. However, some non-Islamized indigenous groups in Mindanao historically practiced body markings or tattoos, though these are less documented and not as prominent today. Overall, Islamic influence played a major role in shaping cultural identity in Mindanao, leading to a different artistic path compared to the tattoo-heavy traditions seen in the Visayas and Cordillera.

“Ye shall not make any cuttings in your flesh for the dead, nor print any marks upon you: I am the Lord.”

In Christianity the verse often referenced is Leviticus 19:28, which is sometimes interpreted as a warning against marking the body. However, in both religions, interpretations vary widely. Many modern Christians do not view tattoos as a sin under the New Covenant, and in Islam, while tattoos are generally discouraged by many scholars, personal circumstances, intention, and cultural context are also considered in interpretation. In both faiths, the focus is more on a person’s faith, actions, and morality rather than physical appearance, so having a tattoo is not universally seen as something that determines salvation or leads to “going to hell.”

IGOROT BUSCALAN (Luzon)

The essence of tattoos among the Igorot is deeply rooted in identity, honor, and life meaning, rather than simple decoration. In groups like the Kalinga people, tattoos called batok were earned through real-life achievements, especially in warfare for men, where each mark represented bravery and status in the community. For women, tattoos symbolized beauty, maturity, and social belonging, showing readiness and respect within their culture.

Beyond status, these tattoos also carried spiritual and protective meaning, believed to guard the wearer and connect them to ancestors. The process itself, traditionally done through hand-tapping as preserved in places like Buscalan, adds to its significance, as it is both a physical and cultural rite. Overall, Igorot tattoos are best understood as a living record of a person’s life, achievements, and place in the community, not just body art.

Other tattoos and their meanings. I noticed that in Buscalan, it is more common to see snakeskin inspired markings worn as chest tattoos extending to the sleeves, creating a reptile like appearance. My old man says they get these tattoos because they act like jackets in the cold mountain climate, helping keep them warm. It could be true. However, while it is an interesting idea, this is not actually accurate.

Apo Whang-Od is a legendary traditional tattoo artist from Buscalan, known for preserving the ancient Kalinga “batok” hand-tapped tattooing method. She is widely recognized as the last and oldest practitioner of her generation, passing down the craft to younger relatives to keep the tradition alive. One of her most notable achievements is being featured on the cover of Vogue Philippines, where she became the oldest cover model in Vogue history at over 100 years old. This milestone brought global attention to Filipino indigenous culture and highlighted the importance of preserving traditional arts.

VISAYAN PINTADOS (Visayas)

In modern times, people wearing historically accurate Visayan tattoos are rare, with only a small number of practitioners and cultural revivalists maintaining the tradition. This is largely because Visayan tattooing declined significantly during the Spanish colonial period and was not continuously preserved in everyday community life. In contrast, among Igorot groups such as the Kalinga people of Buscalan, traditional tattooing has survived and is still practiced, making it more visible today. In the Visayas, tattooed appearances are more often seen in festivals and cultural performances rather than as permanent, lived traditions. Much of what we know about early Visayan tattoo culture comes from historical accounts and illustrations recorded by Spanish chroniclers and artists, who described the “Pintados” as heavily tattooed, although these records should be understood as outsider interpretations rather than fully complete representations of the original culture.

Back side of a male Visayan tribal tattoo.

Front side of a female Visayan tribal tattoo.

Early Austronesian migration theories suggest that ancestral groups related to peoples from Borneo moved through Island Southeast Asia into what is now the Philippines roughly between 3000 BCE and 1000 BCE, long before recorded history. Over time, these movements and exchanges contributed to the formation of early Filipino societies and cultural blending with indigenous Negrito groups such as the Aeta in Luzon and the Ati in the Visayas. This long interaction helped shape early traditions, including body markings and symbolic forms of identity that later evolved into more complex tattoo systems like those seen in Visayan and Cordillera cultures.

However, what is important to note is that tattoo culture is not unique to the Philippines. In Borneo today, especially among Dayak groups, traditional tattooing remains very much alive and continuously practiced. These tattoos are deeply connected to identity, spirituality, protection, and life milestones, similar in cultural importance to the hand-tapped traditions found in the Philippines, such as the Kalinga “batok” of Buscalan. This shows a broader Austronesian heritage across Island Southeast Asia, where body art developed independently but shares common cultural themes that are still visible and actively practiced today in places like Borneo.

Over time, Dayak and Visayan tattoos may not be the same, but they are connected in a broader Austronesian cultural sense. This is what it looks like.

REGIONAL BLADED WEAPONS

I am only going to present common bladed weapons, most of which are used for agriculture, specifically for bushwhacking, since in the past people lived in dense rainforests. These blades also served as symbols of status and, of course, have been tested through experience as lethal tools. This is why they are still carried as part of the respected FMA system (Filipino Martial Arts). In Filipino Martial Arts, students are taught weapons first before hand-to-hand combat, including wrestling, known as Dumog. This approach makes sense because, historically, people were more likely to encounter edged tools in real situations than empty-hand fighting, so understanding weapons first was considered more practical and essential.

However, in this day and age, it is not common for people to carry pistols, much less assault rifles. Hand-to-hand combat is more practical in sports settings and, if necessary, in everyday situations such as on the streets or in office environments. It is generally less relevant in places like restaurant kitchens or in the kinds of violent scenarios often seen on social media today.

THE FILIPINO BOLO

One hundred ten percent of non-tribal Filipinos in Luzon have this blade in their households. Even in the USA, perhaps around 80 percent do as well. The Filipino bolo, known as “buneng” in Ilocano, is a traditional single-edged blade commonly used in Luzon for farming, cutting vegetation, kitchen blade primarly for cutting bones and meat, and general outdoor work. It typically features a curved or slightly forward-weighted blade designed for efficient chopping. A distinctive version includes a horn or hardwood handle, which provides a strong grip and durability, often reflecting both practicality and regional craftsmanship. Basically, a filipino machette.

It remains widely used in rural areas even today, especially in agricultural communities, and many households still keep one or more for everyday utility. The sheath is often made from cowhide, which can carry a strong natural odor due to traditional processing methods where modern chemical treatments are not always used. However, this is generally accepted by carriers as part of the tool’s character and authenticity rather than a drawback.

LUZON

Igorots

The Himalung is a traditional Igorot blade from the Cordillera region of Luzon, used mainly for farming, woodcutting, and daily utility. It is a single or double-edged, durable knife with a straight to slightly curved chopping blade and a hardwood or horn handle designed for a secure grip. It reflects practical highland craftsmanship and everyday survival use.

The Aliwa or Wasay (Ilocano axe) is designed with a practical balance between cutting power and control, shaped by the demands of Cordillera mountain life. The axe head is usually slightly forward-weighted with a sharp, wedge-like point and a broad cutting edge. This design concentrates force into a small area, making it effective for chopping wood, clearing dense vegetation, and splitting tough materials with fewer swings. The handle knob at the end also serves an important function. It helps prevent the axe from slipping out of the hand during heavy swings, especially in wet or muddy conditions. It also acts as a natural stopping point for grip control, improving leverage and stability during repeated use. Additionally, the purpose of the knob, if it is located in the middle of the shaft, is to help make it easier to pull the tool out when it gets stuck in timber and similar materials.

The Sibat has no single standardized Igorot-wide term for the spear because the Cordillera is made up of different ethnolinguistic groups, each with its own language. In many Ilocano-influenced and general usage, it is commonly called “sibat,” which is widely understood across the region. The Igorot spear is a traditional tool and weapon used for hunting, fishing, and survival, typically made with a long wooden shaft and a sharp iron or steel tip for thrusting or throwing, reflecting the practical mountain lifestyle of the Igorot people.

VISAYAS

The Kampilan is a traditional long, single-edged sword used by various Filipino groups, including Visayan warriors. It is known for its long, tapering blade that is wider at the tip, making it effective for powerful slashing attacks. Historically, it is often associated with pre-colonial warfare and is popularly linked to Battle of Mactan, where Lapu-Lapu and his warriors resisted Spanish forces led by Magellan.

The kampilan’s handle is often carved in the shape of a serpent or crocodile-like figure, sometimes adorned with fur or decorative hair. This design symbolizes power, protection, and warrior spirit, with the serpent form representing strength, guardianship, and intimidation in battle.

MINDANAO

Moros

The Kris (kalis) is a traditional wavy-bladed sword or dagger used by Moro groups in the southern Philippines. It is known for its distinctive undulating blade, designed for both cutting and thrusting. Beyond combat, the kris also holds deep cultural and spiritual significance and is often used in ceremonies and rituals, symbolizing bravery, status, protection, and ancestral heritage among Moro communities.

The Barong is a traditional leaf-shaped blade used by Moro groups in the southern Philippines. It features a wide, heavy single-edged design that becomes broader toward the tip, making it highly effective for powerful cutting and chopping. Known as both a practical tool and a favored close-combat weapon, the barong is respected for its balance, strength, and efficiency in dense environments.

Today, it is also widely recognized among Filipino martial arts practitioners and collectors in the United States, including companies like Cold Steel, as well as in other countries worldwide, for its distinctive shape and cultural significance, though its primary historical use remains rooted in Moro craftsmanship and warfare traditions.

REGIONAL POPULAR FOOD

Let’s end this blog with the ethnic cuisines of the Philippines. Some of these foods existed even before colonial times, and they are actually connected to wider Austronesian and Southeast Asian culinary traditions, including Malaysia, Indonesia, China, and others. Basically, these dishes developed long before Spanish colonization and the formal grouping of the Philippines into its three main regions. And the rest developed during the colonial period, but I am only going to highlight the ones that stand out the most.

LUZON

Ilocos Empanada

Ilocos empanada started as a regional specialty from Ilocos Norte and gradually gained viral attention through social media, food vlogs, and tourism content starting around 2017, continuing to grow in popularity through 2026 and potentially beyond. Its appeal comes from its unique crispy orange shell, savory filling, and strong regional identity, which makes it highly shareable and recognizable online.

In recent years, its rising popularity has even led to ideas of modernization and franchising, similar in concept to large Filipino fast-food chains like Jollibee. While it is not a global franchise at that level yet, some local businesses and entrepreneurs have already begun standardizing and expanding empanada-style concepts, turning it from a purely street food item into something that could evolve into a wider commercial brand in the future, especially as Filipino cuisine continues gaining international attention.

VISAYAS

Lechon Baboy

Lechon baboy from Cebu is one of the most iconic dishes in the Visayas, especially known for its perfectly roasted whole pig with crispy golden skin and tender, flavorful meat. It is traditionally seasoned and slow-roasted over charcoal, often without heavy sauces because the natural flavor of the pork, herbs, and spices is already rich and aromatic.

Lechon baboy from Cebu gained national and international recognition over the years and became widely popular through food tourism, festivals, and media exposure, especially from the 2000s through 2026 and beyond. It is now considered one of the Philippines’ signature dishes, often served during celebrations, fiestas, and major gatherings. While not a fast-food franchise like modern chains, it has become a highly commercialized and sought-after dish, with many lechon houses in Cebu competing for recognition as the best, making it a culinary symbol of Visayan pride and Filipino festive culture.

It is also similar to Indonesian Babi Guling from Bali, which is a whole roasted pig dish that often uses lemongrass, turmeric, garlic, shallots, ginger, chili, and other aromatic spices in its preparation, giving it a distinct and rich flavor profile. These ingredients are similarly close in concept to Lechon baboy from Cebu, which also uses garlic, onion, pepper, herbs, and lemongrass to season the pig before roasting. Both dishes reflect shared Southeast Asian roasting traditions, where whole pig roasting is used for celebrations and cultural gatherings, though each retains its own regional spice combinations, cooking methods, and cultural identity.

MINDANAO

Satti

Many popular foods from Mindanao commonly use coconut milk (gata) and other coconut-based ingredients, especially in dishes influenced by Muslim Filipino cultures such as the Maranao people and Maguindanao people, because coconuts are widely available in the region and naturally shape its cooking style. A well-known example is Satti from Zamboanga City, which is a popular breakfast dish of grilled meat skewers served with a spicy sauce and rice. However, while coconut-based dishes are very common and important in Mindanao cuisine, not all foods from the region rely on coconut, showing that its food culture is diverse and influenced by coastal trade, indigenous traditions, and neighboring Southeast Asian cuisines.

Another important point is that coconut milk-based cooking is especially strong in Mindanao, and it has influenced how some dishes are prepared in other parts of the country as well. This style of cooking has similarities with other Filipino dishes that use coconut milk, such as ginataang pinakbet, or pinakbet with coconut milk, which is a variation of the traditional pinakbet from Northern Luzon. While classic pinakbet originally comes from the Ilocos region and does not use coconut milk, some modern or regional adaptations include it, showing how Filipino cuisine evolves and blends influences.

You can read the previos version of this blog, which is FILIPINO IDENTITY II.